Chapter V Pastoralists In The Modern World

Overview

This chapter explores the lives of nomadic pastoralists, communities that move seasonally in search of pasture and water for their livestock. It highlights their importance in economies like India and Africa, detailing how colonial policies drastically altered their traditional lifestyles, restricted their movements, and diminished their grazing lands. The chapter examines the challenges faced by these communities, their strategies for adaptation, and the varying impacts of these changes, emphasizing that pastoralism remains a viable and important way of life, particularly in ecologically challenging regions.

Pastoral Nomads And Their Movements

• In the Mountains: Communities like the Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir and the Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh practice cyclical seasonal migration. They move to low hills (like the Siwalik range) in winter and ascend to high mountain meadows (bugyals) in summer. Their movements are carefully timed with seasonal changes, pasture availability, and agricultural cycles, often involving collective journeys (kaflias) and cooperation with farmers for manure and fodder.
• On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts: Pastoral groups like the Dhangars of Maharashtra moved seasonally between the dry central plateau (monsoon grazing) and the Konkan coast (post-harvest fields for manure). The Raikas of Rajasthan combined cultivation with pastoralism, moving between villages during monsoons and seeking pastures elsewhere during dry periods. The Gollas, Kurumas, and Kurubas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh also adapted their movements based on monsoon and dry seasons. Banjaras were known for long-distance movements, trading cattle and goods. These communities combined herding with cultivation, trade, and crafts to sustain their livelihoods.

Colonial Rule And Pastoral Life

Colonial policies drastically impacted pastoralists:

• Expansion of Cultivation: Colonial governments aimed to increase land revenue by expanding cultivation. Waste Land Rules were enacted, taking over grazing lands and giving them to select individuals for farming, thereby reducing pastures available for pastoralists.
• Forest Acts: Forests were classified as 'reserved,' restricting pastoralists' access. Even in 'protected' forests, movements were regulated by permits, limiting grazing periods and areas. These acts disrupted traditional grazing cycles and led to fodder shortages, weakening herds.
• Criminal Tribes Act (1871): Colonial authorities distrusted nomadic people, classifying many pastoral and craft communities as 'Criminal Tribes.' These communities were confined to notified settlements and required permits for movement, effectively trying to control and settle a mobile population.
• Grazing Tax: Taxes were imposed on animals, increasing the cost of pastoralism. The system of tax collection, initially through contractors and later directly by the government, became increasingly efficient and burdensome.

These measures led to a decline in grazing lands, increased fodder scarcity, deterioration of livestock, and often, increased indebtedness and poverty among pastoralists.

How Did These Changes Affect The Lives Of Pastoralists?

The imposition of colonial laws led to severe pasture shortages as grazing lands were converted to agriculture or reserved forests. Restrictions on movement disrupted traditional cyclical patterns, leading to continuous, intensive grazing of remaining lands, degrading pasture quality and weakening livestock. The criminalization of nomadic communities further marginalized them. Increased taxation and reduced access to resources pushed many into poverty, debt, and forced labor.

How Did The Pastoralists Cope With These Changes?

Pastoralists adapted to these challenges in several ways:

• Reduced Herd Size: Some reduced their cattle numbers due to lack of adequate pasture.
• New Pastures: They sought new grazing grounds, sometimes crossing newly formed political boundaries (e.g., Raikas moving to Haryana after India-Pakistan partition).
• Diversification: Richer pastoralists bought land and settled, becoming peasants or traders. Many poor pastoralists borrowed money, and some lost their animals, becoming laborers.
• Adaptation: Despite hardships, many pastoral communities survived by changing movement directions, reducing herd sizes, combining pastoralism with other income sources, and adapting to modern regulations.

Pastoralism In Africa

Millions of Africans, including communities like the Maasai, Bedouins, Berbers, and Boran, depend on pastoralism. Their lives have also been dramatically altered by colonial rule.

Where Have The Grazing Lands Gone?

Colonial powers seized large tracts of Maasai grazing land for European settlement and game reserves (like Maasai Mara and Serengeti National Park). Boundaries drawn between colonies (e.g., British Kenya and German Tanganyika) split traditional grazing areas, confining pastoralists to smaller, often arid regions with poor pastures. Expansion of cultivation by peasant communities also reduced available grazing land.

The Borders Are Closed

New territorial boundaries and permits restricted the movement of pastoralists, cutting them off from traditional grazing grounds and markets. Colonial authorities viewed nomads with suspicion and sought to control their mobility, often punishing those who violated the new rules.

When Pastures Dry

Droughts, which pastoralists traditionally survived by moving to new areas, became more devastating due to confinement within restricted reserves. Continuous grazing in limited areas degraded pastures, leading to severe fodder shortages and livestock mortality, as seen with the Maasai cattle during droughts in the 1930s.

Not All Were Equally Affected

Changes impacted different pastoral groups unevenly. In Maasai society, traditional structures of elders and warriors were disrupted. Colonial governments appointed chiefs who often accumulated wealth through regulated trade and lending, distinguishing them from the poorer pastoralists who suffered most from restrictions and droughts. While traditional social distinctions were challenged, new economic disparities emerged between wealthy and poor pastoralists.

Conclusion

Pastoral communities worldwide have been significantly impacted by modernization, colonial policies, and new territorial boundaries, which restrict their movements and access to resources. Despite these challenges, pastoralists have shown resilience and adaptability, changing migration routes, diversifying livelihoods, and advocating for their rights. Their continued existence and adaptation demonstrate that pastoral nomadism remains a viable and often ecologically sound way of life suited to many challenging environments, and they are not merely relics of the past but active participants in the modern world.

Questions

The chapter's questions prompt students to explain the need for nomadic pastoralism and its environmental benefits, discuss the impact of specific colonial laws (Waste Land Rules, Forest Acts, Criminal Tribes Act, Grazing Tax) on pastoralists, explain the loss of grazing lands for the Maasai, and compare the changes experienced by Indian pastoralists and the Maasai. Activities encourage students to imagine and write from the perspective of pastoralists affected by these changes and to research specific pastoral communities.